Sage of the Diviners: Reconciling Christianity and Salvia divinorum

1. Introduction

For centuries, communities across the globe have used psychoactive substances for spiritual, medicinal, and recreational practices (Crocq, 2007). Sóma, for instance, was employed for apotheotic rites in Vedic tradition: it was a mysterious drink of either plant or mushroom origin—participants would consume the sacrament, ostensibly transfiguring into gods (Staal, 2001). In Central Africa, Tabernanthe iboga was revered by the founders of Bwiti (Pinchbeck, 2002). The plant’s roots still comprise an essential component of initiation ceremonies: a rite of passage for Bwiti practitioners (Blainey, 2015). For secular circles, caffeine can serve as a more relatable example of mind-altering drugs (Ryan et al., 2002). Over 60 species of plants contain the compound, some contributing to various products, including chocolate, tea, and Coca-Cola  (Pollan, 2021; Rodak et al., 2021). Caffeine's initial applications predate the Iron Age; this epitomises the long-standing relationship between psychoactive substances and human activities (Pollan, 2021).

1.1. Brief History of Psychedelic Research 

Recent studies have demonstrated the therapeutic benefits of psychedelic drugs (Davis et al., 2021; De Gregorio et al., 2021; Lowe et al., 2022). This potential in psychopharmacology arguably reflects an earlier wave of enthusiasm for mind-altering molecules. On April 16 of 1943, Albert Hofmann accidentally discovered the hallucinogenic effects of lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD) (Pollan, 2018; Reiff et al., 2020). The Swiss chemist had absorbed the chemical through his skin while processing LSD tartrate; soon afterwards, he experienced a dreamlike state, reporting a stream of kaleidoscopic patterns (Reiff et al., 2020). The hallucinations prompted Hofmann to consider an intentional course of experiments; three days later, on April 19, he ingested 0.25 mg of LSD (Schiff, 2006). Plunged into a frightening swirl of visual distortions, Hofmann perceived an out-of-body sensation; he thought that he had died, observing the room while purportedly floating above his corpse (Savage & Cholden, 1956).

Despite the initial chaos, Hofmann emerged from his psychedelic ordeal with an amplified sense of wellbeing: after finishing breakfast the next morning, he strolled through his garden—everything sparkled in the sunlight, damp from rainfall; the world appeared newly created (Carhart-Harris et al., 2016). This sequence of events initiated a fervent effort to market LSD for psychiatric purposes (Reiff et al., 2020). Psilocybin, mescaline, and dimethyltryptamine (DMT) were later promoted as comparable adjuncts to psychotherapy, complementing a psychopharmacological arsenal of mind-altering drugs (Rucker et al., 2018). Throughout the 1950s and ’60s, clinical trials yielded promising data for psychedelic interventions (Rucker et al., 2018). LSD showed considerable efficacy in resolving both alcoholism and war-related stress (Belouin & Henningfield, 2018); psilocybin was used in similar studies, addressing substance-abuse and neurotic disorders (Coppola et al., 2022). 

In spite of mounting evidence of clinical success, the surge in psychedelic applications was short-lived. As relevant research progressed, social acceptance of mind-altering compounds diminished (Rucker et al., 2018). Recreational abuse of the drugs had led to instances of catatonia and suicide (Smart & Bateman, 1967); such reports became especially prevalent in the 1960s, provoking a widespread stigma against psychedelic chemicals (Belouin & Henningfield, 2018). Sweeping prohibition ensued, criminalising the compounds. In the United States, for instance, LSD was federally banned in 1968; it was subsequently listed as a Schedule I drug under the Controlled Substances Act of 1970 (Penn & Yehuda, 2023). In the wake of such developments, psychedelic studies were largely abandoned by scientific circles (Pollan, 2018). Some researchers lamented the collapse, regarding prohibition as a consequence of moral panic (Barnett et al., 2025).

After two decades of underground resistance, a psychedelic resurgence occurred in the 1990s (Carhart-Harris et al., 2016). Early examples include a dose-response study on DMT in humans (Strassman & Qualls, 1994); this preceded a 1997 application of psilocybin for modelling correlations between serotonin-receptor activation and acute formation of psychotic symptoms (Vollenweider et al., 1997). Similar studies gained traction, reinforcing a growing movement of psychedelic advocacy (Andrews & Wright, 2022). In 2020, Health Canada permitted four patients with terminal cancer to receive psilocybin therapy for end-of-life distress (Patchett-Marble et al., 2022). Having banned the compound in 1974, this represented a monumental change in Canadian policy (Patchett-Marble et al., 2022); it reflected the country’s openness to shifting perspectives, validating the potential of psychedelic medicine.

1.2. Salvia

LSD, psilocybin, and DMT continue to dominate hallucinogenic studies: efforts to supplement both psychiatric and palliative therapies (Ross et al., 2022; Więckiewicz et al., 2021). Consequently, inadequate attention has been given to comparable molecules, such as salvinorin A (Casselman et al., 2014; Pollan, 2018). As the world’s most powerful naturally occurring hallucinogen (Imanshahidi & Hosseinzadeh, 2006), salvinorin A carries fascinating roots of Mazatec shamanism (Zawilska & Wojcieszak, 2013). It has contributed to medicinal and spiritual practices for centuries, deriving from a plant of considerable eminence: Salvia divinorum (Johnson et al., 2011). That said, some patients may hesitate to accept this compound as a therapeutic option—such aversion may be especially prominent in Christian circles, where biblical positions might clash with psychedelic prospects (Lloyd et al., 2022). Evangelicals, for instance, may perceive a spiritualisation of mental illness, relying solely on faith for a God-given cure (Lloyd et al., 2022). Comparatively, some Catholics might discourage the use of psychedelic catalysts for mystical pursuits; according to some teachings, a mystical experience could precipitate demonic interactions, including possession (Carroll, 2024; Exline et al., 2024); this would amount to a dangerous practice, inviting accusations of heresy and hedonism (Carroll, 2024; Winkelman et al., 2024).

Nevertheless, some Christians have advocated the acceptance of psychedelic compounds in the Church; they argue that relevant substances can facilitate spiritual growth and psychological healing (Winkelman et al., 2024). From such standpoints, Christian resistance to psychedelic drugs might simply reflect an ecclesiastical tendency to avoid the unfamiliar—to conflate foreign perspectives with heterodoxy (Winkelman et al., 2024). This division represents an important question for both religious and clinical studies: are psychedelic substances compatible with Christian principles? The following essay will discuss S. divinorum’s psychoactive potency; it will summarise the plant’s natural history, cultural significance, and pharmaceutical potential. By likewise exploring the plant’s ethnobotanical syncretism, the essay will ultimately argue that S. divinorum can assist both secular and religious communities as a tool for introspection and personal wellness.

2. Natural History

Figure 1. Salvia divinorum showing white corollae and purple calyces in Veracruz, Mexico (takitos013, 2024).

Commonly known as sage of the diviners, S. divinorum belongs to the mint family: Lamiaceae (Hanso, 2010); according to some reports, the Salvia genus comprises roughly 1,000 species (Fatur, 2021; Hu et al., 2018; Llurba-Montesino & Schmidt, 2018). S. divinorum is relatively rare, endemic to a small area of Oaxaca’s Sierra Mazateca in Mexico (Reisfield, 1993). As the region’s name suggests, S. divinorum shares an intimate relationship with the Mazatec community (Reisfield, 1993); it typically grows between 0.5 and 1.5 m tall (Reisfield, 1993). Habitats for S. divinorum lie within tropical cloud forests, which feature high humidity and persistent cloud cover (Casselman et al., 2014); accordingly, the plant prospers primarily in partial and full shade—a sciophilous species (Casselman et al., 2014). S. divinorum populations have been found at altitudes between 500 and 1,500 m (Casselman et al., 2014); they spread vigorously along rocky stream banks, growing in moist, nutrient-rich soil (Casselman et al., 2014; Reisfield, 1993).

S. divinorum’s leaves measure 10–25 cm in length, 5–10 cm in width (Casselman et al., 2014); they grow oppositely on hollow, quadrangular stems, which render the plant translucent (Casselman et al., 2014). Each leaf involves an elliptical or ovate shape; the margins are irregularly serrated (Reisfield, 1993); both glandular and non-glandular trichomes occupy abaxial and adaxial surfaces (Siebert, 2004). Covering the stems, rachises, petioles, and veins, the most abundant non-glandular trichomes measure 100–200 μm in length (Siebert, 2004). Glandular trichomes are divided into two types: capitate and peltate (Siebert, 2004). Capitate glandular trichomes may be responsible for S. divinorum’s fragrant compounds, as the long-stalked structures primarily cover the bracts, pedicles, and calyces (Siebert, 2004). While capitate glandular trichomes release their compounds to the environment, peltate glandular trichomes accomplish phytochemical repositories; they secrete a terpene-rich resin, which accumulates in subcuticular spaces (Siebert, 2004). The absence of peltate glandular trichomes on adaxial surfaces has confirmed the origin of S. divinorum’s neoclerodane diterpenes; such chemicals do not occur unless peltate glandular trichomes are present (Siebert, 2004).

Although cloud-forest gloom typically limits S. divinorum to vegetative growth, flowers can emerge sporadically when adequate sunlight filters through the canopy (Casselman et al., 2014). Measuring 3–4 cm in length, the flowers encompass white corollae and purple calices (Casselman et al., 2014); they grow on panicles of 20–30 blooms, appearing between the months of October and June (Casselman et al., 2014; Reisfield, 1993). For flowering to occur, S. divinorum requires a scotoperiod of over 12 h: set durations of uninterrupted darkness (Casselman et al., 2014). Laboratory studies have shown that S. divinorum may abort inflorescence when exposed to light; if the stimulus interrupts a critical dark period, the plant may return to vegetative growth (Reisfield, 1993).

Pollinators remain uncertain for sage of the diviners (Casselman et al., 2014); nevertheless, the plant’s nectar and corolla shape suggest ornithophily (Reisfield, 1993). Hummingbirds have been observed by the flowers (Casselman et al., 2014; Reisfield, 1993); furthermore, greenhouse data have shown that nectar volumes comprise between 21% and 23% sugar (Reisfield, 1993). The values are roughly consistent with those of Mexico’s known bird-pollinated flowers; such species average sugar concentrations of 23.8% (Reisfield, 1993). S. divinorum is parasitised by several insects; that said, observational studies have found a conspicuous lack of arthropodan pollinators (Casselman et al., 2014;Reisfield, 1993). Bumblebees reportedly disregard S. divinorum flowers; the same aversion has been documented for known ornithophilous plants, including numerous scarlet-flowered Salvia species (Reisfield, 1993). Although S. divinorum receives a number of pests, its chemicals may deter certain herbivores: neoclerodane diterpenes are known to have antifeedant activity in insects (Siebert, 2004). The plant’s (−)-hardwickiic acid, for example, is lethal to the cow-pea aphid (Aphis craccivora); when exposed to laboratory concentrations of 5 ppm, insect mortality for female A. craccivora can amount to 62% in 24 h (Casselman et al., 2014). Considering the acid’s toxicity, S. divinorum’s insecticidal capacity may partly explain the absence of hymenopteran pollinators.

3. Ethnobotany

Information on S. divinorum’s sexual reproduction remains vague; both naturally and anthropogenically, the plant is very adept at clonal propagation (Casselman et al., 2014). It rarely blooms; pollination experiments have shown that S. divinorum is likely self-sterile (Valdés et al., 1987); the plant reportedly never sets seed in Mexico (Reisfield, 1993). Such limitations suggest that S. divinorum’s viability likely depends on human intervention; the plant may have been translocated from its original environment to survive as a cultigen (Casselman et al., 2014; Valdés et al., 1987). Mazatec healers tend S. divinorum in hidden groves; the curanderos and curanderas maintain secret locations to protect the plants from theft and sorcery (Casselman et al., 2014). To collect S. divinorum’s leaves, the healers pinch the petioles at the main stem; the harvest can be kept fresh by wrapping it in the leaves of elephant ear (Xanthosoma robustum) (Casselman et al., 2014). Fresh leaves are required for Mazatec rites; X. robustum can delay decomposition for up to 1 wk (Casselman et al., 2014). Ceremonial leaves are either chewed or pulverised in a mortar; the mortar’s consequent pulp can be used for an infusion (Casselman et al., 2014).

3.1. Shamanism and Syncretism

To become Mazatec healers, informal apprentices are led through a series of progressive visions, which involve Psilocybe mushrooms, morning-glory seeds (Ipomoea violacea), and S. divinorum leaves (Casselman et al., 2014). Prospective curanderos ingest the hallucinogens at regular intervals over a 2-yr period (Casselman et al., 2014). Increasingly large doses of S. divinorum allow the apprentices to practise divination; for Mazatec curanderos, S. divinorum can show the way to heaven, where healers can learn from the tree of the knowledge of good and evil (Casselman et al., 2014). Such syncretism between shamanic and Christian traditions plays a notable role in Mazatec culture. S. divinorum is known under Marian titles, such as Virgin Mary’s herb (Valdés et al., 1987); leaves of the shepherdess may also reflect a Christian connection (Casselman et al., 2014). Animistic perspectives describe the plant’s spirit as “shy like a deer” (Pinchbeck, 2002, p. 225). According to one anecdote, the spirit graced a large garden, appearing after a Mazatec ceremony as a beautiful woman in white (Pinchbeck, 2002); a similar experience was reported by Valdés et al. (1987). Although this image may evoke thoughts of the Virgin Mary, such impressions disagree with pre-Columbian visions. The Aztecs may have regarded S. divinorum as Piltzintechuhtli: a young prince in the Aztec pantheon (Granziera, 2001).

Ultimately, S. divinorum ceremonies can last between 2 and 3 h; they are carried out at night in remote locations, as absolute silence is considered essential for the ritual’s success (Casselman et al., 2014). Participants are guided through different states of consciousness by a healer, first receiving cigar-shaped tubes of rolled S. divinorum leaves (Casselman et al., 2014). If participants cannot chew the foliage or tolerate the plant’s bitter taste, they can opt for an infusion (Casselman et al., 2014). Each ceremony involves a sober supervisor, who watches over the process to prevent any harm to the participants (Casselman et al., 2014). As hallucinations diminish, curanderos often bathe participants in S. divinorum juices, which purportedly end the plant’s effects (Casselman et al., 2014). Participants are debriefed; subsequent conversations are designed to facilitate meaningful interpretations of each experience, ensuring the ceremony’s success (Casselman et al., 2014).

4. Medicinal Benefits and Chemistry

For Mazatec curanderos, the medicinal benefits of S. divinorum can alleviate eczema, candidiasis, cystitis, dysmenorrhea, depression, and alcohol addiction (Coffeen & Pellicer, 2019). Alcoholics are prescribed 100-leaf infusions, while teetotal patients are prescribed 50-leaf infusions (Wasson, 1962). Although Mazatec shamanism may seem superstitious to some critics (Schultes, 1940; Wasson, 1963), scientific analyses have confirmed the pharmaceutical merits of S. divinorum; studies on salvinorin A have shown both anti-inflammatory and analgesic effects (Coffeen & Pellicer, 2019). The chemical constitutes the most prevalent diterpene in S. divinorum (Casselman et al., 2014); it is a highly selective κ-opioid receptor (KOR) agonist: the first reported diterpene to encompass psychoactive properties (Casselman et al., 2014). The KOR is one of five related receptors, which bind opioid-type compounds in the human brain; it is involved in pain perception and motor control (Casselman et al., 2014).

Cannabinoid binding sites likewise interact with salvinorin A (Casselman et al., 2014). The CB1 receptor accommodates a particularly interesting interaction, as it demonstrates the validity of S. divinorum’s ethnopharmacology: Mazatec curanderos traditionally employ S. divinorum against gastrointestinal malaise, reflecting laboratory data (Casselman et al., 2014); relevant data have shown that the CB1 receptor inhibits gastrointestinal mobility in rat guts (Casselman et al., 2014). Similarly, salvinorin A can inhibit nerve cells in a guinea pig’s small bowel (Casselman et al., 2014). In humans, the endocannabinoid system is known to modulate pain, mood, appetite, and memory; accordingly, the relationship between salvinorin A and physiological processes seems to justify S. divinorum’s applications in Mazatec medicine (Casselman et al., 2014).

4.1. Pharmacology

Humans can absorb salvinorin A via two routes: absorption through the buccal membrane and inhalation (Casselman et al., 2014). Sublingual doses reportedly require more than 4 mg of salvinorin A to provoke hallucinations; for inhalation, participants require between 0.375 and 21 mg kg−1 to experience psychoactive effects (Casselman et al., 2014). When smoked, the compound’s effects can manifest within 1 min after consumption; they last for approximately 15 min (Casselman et al., 2014). Despite S. divinorum’s medicinal versatility, the plant should be approached with caution; the chemicals can precipitate adverse reactions (MacLean et al., 2013; Meyer and Writer, 2012). Case reports describe salvia-induced episodes of dizziness, agitation, and memory impairment (Brito-da-Costa et al., 2021; MacLean et al., 2013); more concerning ramifications include tachycardia, hypertension, and dissociative behaviour (Brito-da-Costa et al., 2021). A 17-year-old girl, for instance, self-mutilated after smoking S. divinorum, lacerating her forearm and abdomen (Breton et al., 2010). Such responses to the plant remain uncommon; psychoses are typically transient, resolving within a few hours (Brito-da-Costa et al., 2021; Meyer and Writer, 2012). Serious reactions to S. divinorum generally involve co-consumption with other drugs or preexisting mental-health issues (Brito-da-Costa et al., 2021); the aforementioned 17-year-old was diagnosed with bipolar disorder roughly 3 yr prior to the S. divinorum incident (Breton et al., 2010).

Despite the possibility of negative repercussions, pharmaceutical researchers remain optimistic about S. divinorum (MacLean et al., 2013). Studies have shown that salvinorin A can be administered to naïve participants without appreciable risk; nevertheless, further investigations are needed to determine the most appropriate applications for the compound (MacLean et al., 2013). S. divinorum’s legal status can pose problems for both scientists and recreational users; in the United States, accessibility has been hampered in several regions, including Michigan, Missouri, Connecticut, and Florida (Brito-da-Costa et al., 2021). For Canadians, the sale, possession, and production of S. divinorum are prohibited; the plant is listed under Schedule IV of the Controlled Drugs and Substances Act (Health Canada, 2023). Considering S. divinorum’s therapeutic potential, such prohibition may be depriving people of effective antidepressants and anxiolytics (Brito-da-Costa et al., 2021; MacLean et al., 2013). Perhaps recent authorisations for medical psilocybin will eventually extend to a greater range of mind-altering drugs (Patchett-Marble et al., 2022).

5. Salvia and Christianity

Christian reservations towards psychedelic chemicals may likewise be deterring people from therapeutic assets. Despite the religion’s emphasis on healing, certain segments of the Church have historically looked down upon medical interventions for mental and physical ailments (Macallan, 2023). This partly explains vaccine hesitancy among Christians during the COVID-19 pandemic (Tiwana & Smith, 2024). Considering S. divinorum’s roots in Mazatec shamanism, the Church arguably has grounds for a cautious approach to the plant. Syncretic descriptions of the tree of the knowledge of good and evil, for instance, may immediately evoke the concept of sin (Casselman et al., 2014); in Christianity’s creation story, the tree was a place of temptation, harbouring the Devil in its branches (Gagen, 1983). With this in mind, a spiritual opposition to psychedelic drugs amounts to a valid precaution for the Church; plant-derived hallucinations and therapeutic benefits could be perceived as demonic deceptions.       

Nevertheless, counter arguments can likewise draw from Scripture to support applications of psychedelic compounds. Both the Old and New Testaments are rife with examples of mystical experience (Clark-Soles, 2024); additionally, an emphasis on nature’s inherent goodness can be found in passages throughout the Bible (Ferrara, 2021). This essay intended to further reconcile Christianity and psychedelic drugs by discussing the Native American Church, Santo Daime, and the Good Friday experiment (Carroll, 2024); however, it will end by pointing to relevant studies: Carroll, 2024; Clark-Soles, 2024; Lloyd et al., 2022; Macallan, 2023; Winkelman et al., 2024. These give excellent examples of advocacy for psychedelic drugs in Christian communities. Ultimately, the use of S. divinorum and comparable substances remains a personal choice. Some Christians will perceive the compounds as antithetical to the Church; others will embrace the chemicals as catalysts for spiritual growth and mental wellbeing (Carroll, 2024). By considering the evidence of S. divinorum’s psychiatric potential, perhaps sceptical Christians will at least soften their positions, avoiding outright demonisation of the plant.       

6. Conclusion

In conclusion, S. divinorum represents a remarkable plant of both spiritual and medicinal significance. Its syncretic and therapeutic history shows that sage of the diviners should be considered by both secular and religious communities as a tool for introspection and personal wellness. Some Christians may denounce the ritualistic use of plants (Monteith, 2016); however, the Bible’s creation story clearly states that all of God’s work was good (Ferrara, 2021), suggesting that S. divinorum can complement a Christian worldview; in other words, the hallucinogenic potential of S. divinorum should not be perceived as spiritually malignant, as it stems from intrinsic molecules. S. divinorum can reconcile biology and spirituality; additionally, it may represent an atavistic solution to the growing divide between humans and nature (Isham et al., 2022). 

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